Outdated Practices, Unacceptable Outcomes
For centuries, surgical training in both human and veterinary medicine has relied on cadavers and live animals. Once the only options, these methods provided valuable insights, but they have always carried limitations alongside growing ethical concerns. Cadavers degrade, vary in condition, and cannot simulate live physiology. Animals, whether used in human or veterinary training, fail to replicate human anatomy or provide consistent outcomes.
The first principle of medicine is to do no harm. With today’s technology, that principle can be extended not only to patients but also to the animals historically used in surgical education.
Fusetec has pioneered advances in biomimetic engineering, developing proprietary materials and processes to design models that mimic the look, feel, and response of real anatomy. This intellectual property makes it possible to create realistic surgical experiences. Anatomical models replicate soft tissue, vasculature, and even active bleeding, giving trainees the ability to perform real procedures while eliminating the need for traditional methods.
The Challenge of Habit and Resistance to Change
One of the greatest barriers to progress is not technology but culture. For generations, medical training has followed the traditional mantra of “watch one, do one, teach one.” This leaves trainees with too little repetition, too little exposure to complex cases, and too much reliance on theory.
Many educators continue to use cadavers or animals simply because it is the way it has always been done. This resistance to change slows progress, even as safer and more effective alternatives now exist.
Resistance is reinforced by several factors:
- Fear of the Unknown: Institutions hesitate to abandon familiar methods, even when new approaches are demonstrably safer and more effective.
- Perceived Loss of Credibility: Senior surgeons may feel that moving away from cadavers and animal use diminishes the prestige of their own training.
- Financial Inertia: Universities and hospitals have invested heavily in cadaver storage and animal labs, making them reluctant to pivot toward new technologies.
- Regulatory Complexity: Accreditation bodies and licensing boards often move slowly, reinforcing reliance on traditional practices.
This reluctance creates significant skill gaps. Surgeons-in-training have limited exposure to rare pathologies, complex anatomies, or realistic replicas that would prepare them for the full scope of surgical challenges. Earlier generations of simulation tools lacked realism and consistency, which left some educators skeptical. Those shortcomings were not due to the concept itself but to the limitations of technology available at the time. Today’s advances in biomimetic engineering and surgical simulation, including innovations from Fusetec, have overcome those barriers.
The cultural divide is evident. Some of the older generations continue to value traditional practices, while younger surgeons and veterinarians are often more open to innovation and ethical reform.
Both perspectives matter. Experience and tradition provide a strong foundation, yet meaningful change requires openness to new methods. Progress will come from bridging these viewpoints and ensuring that surgeons of all generations have access to more tools that strengthen training and deliver better outcomes for both patients and animals.
Adoption of new technology will depend on several factors: recognition of the clear evidence of improved outcomes, support from regulatory bodies, updated accreditation standards, and investment in facilities that embrace innovation.
As these elements align, the transition to advanced surgical simulation, such as Fusetec’s anatomical models, will accelerate and set a new benchmark for training worldwide.
Linking innovation with tradition, surgical models now provide the tactile realism and complexity older methods tried to approximate while eliminating their risks and ethical costs.
Beyond Cadavers and Animals: Toward Humane, Effective Training
Cadavers have long offered value in teaching anatomy and surgical techniques, but they bring inherent limitations. They do not bleed, respond, or provide structured learning curves. Pathologies are limited, infection risks are present, access is costly, and their condition degrades rapidly.
Animal-based training introduces different problems. Outcomes are inconsistent, physiology differs, the ethical cost is high, and expenses are significant. In veterinary education, reliance on live animals for practice raises similar concerns, including limited repeatability, inconsistent outcomes, and welfare challenges.
Studies show that skills gained on animals do not reliably transfer to human patients. Residency programs worldwide are already moving away from animal use, as simulation-based models consistently demonstrate equal or superior outcomes. As Nestel et al. (2019) outlined in Advancing Surgical Education: Theory, Evidence and Practice5, effective training requires structured progression, deliberate practice, and simulation-based methods. Cadavers and animals cannot reliably provide these outcomes.
In both human and veterinary medicine, anatomically accurate, species-specific replicas developed by Fusetec now allow trainees to practice with precision and consistency. From routine procedures to complex surgeries, models prepare surgeons for real-world practice while protecting animal welfare. This approach ensures graduates enter the field with confidence, competence, and compassion.
Technology Leading the Transition
Modern surgical models are no longer static replicas. Fusetec’s technology simulates life-like physiology, including pulsating arteries, controllable bleeding, and pathology-specific scenarios on demand. Surgeons can practice everything from routine incisions to rare, high-risk procedures in controlled, repeatable environments. Trainees progress step by step, building competence systematically.
The transition is already underway. In recent training programs, Fusetec models replaced animal-based training entirely, giving surgeons the chance to practice controlling a carotid artery bleed, a life-saving skill, without harming a single animal.
Although outcomes are proven, funding structures remain an obstacle. Government grants still prioritize traditional facilities, which slows adoption. Internationally, momentum is building. The FDA in the United States and the government of the Netherlands have shifted funding toward humane alternatives. Australia and other regions now face the opportunity to follow suit.
A Humane Path Forward
Replacing animals in surgical training is more than innovation; it is an ethical responsibility. Every patient, human or animal, deserves a surgeon or veterinarian who has rehearsed procedures many times on a realistic model before entering the operating theatre or clinic.
The benefits are clear:
- Better skill development through structured progression
- Safer outcomes for patients and surgeons
- Humane practices that reflect a compassionate society
- Smarter use of public funds currently tied to outdated practices
The technology exists. The outcomes are proven. The moral imperative is undeniable.
Mark Roe, CEO of Fusetec
References
- American College of Surgeons (ACS) Bulletin.
Jerry’s Ethical Framework Analyzes Nonhuman Animal Use in Surgical Skill Development. Bulletin of the American College of Surgeons. June 2025, Vol. 110, Issue 6.
Read article - Motola I, et al.
A global consensus on simulation-based education: recommendations for institutional and policy adoption. Advances in Simulation. 2024; 9:12.
Read article - Kraft C, et al. (2024) – Advances in Simulation
- Animal-based training vs. synthetic models, showing that synthetic models offer consistent outcomes and avoid ethical issues.
Read article - Nestel D, Reznick R, Slootweg I. (Eds.).
Advancing Surgical Education: Theory, Evidence and Practice. Springer, 2019.
View book - Shahrezaei M, et al.
Simulation-based surgical training: improving outcomes, reducing errors, and enhancing safety. BMC Medical Education. 2024; 24:6299.
Read article - Fusetec Publications and Case Studies
- Rehman U, et al.
The Development and Validation of Novel 3-Dimensional Models for Simulation Training in Sinonasal and Skull Base Surgery. Annals of Otology, Rhinology & Laryngology. Published May 27, 2025.
Read article - Laryngoscope Investigative Otolaryngology.
Simulation Training with 3D-Printed Models for ESS. Published May 29, 2024.
Read article - Maclean SB, Bain GI.
Advanced Surgical Training Models for Wrist Surgery. Journal of Hand Surgery (Asian-Pacific Volume). Published February 17, 2025.
Read article - Fusetec Innovation Publications.
Full portfolio of peer-reviewed papers across ENT, orthopaedics, and general surgery.
Browse publications - Fusetec Advanced Surgical Training Clinic.
World’s first non-cadaveric, 25-bed surgical training facility, Adelaide (2021).
Read more - Medical Technology Magazine.
“Fusetec: Shaping the Future of Surgical Training with 3D Printing.” Medical Technology. Sept 2021.
Read article